Recent Advances in Molecular Breeding and Key Insights into Freshwater Ornamental Shrimp Improvement for Sustainable Aquaculture Development

Over the past few decades, research on ornamental aquatic species has grown exponentially, particularly within the aquaculture sector, reflecting a growing global interest in this field [1]. Among these, freshwater ornamental shrimp, particularly Neocaridina denticulata, have gained immense popularity in the global aquarium trade due to their vibrant coloration, unique patterns, small size, and adaptability to diverse environments. These shrimp not only enhance the aesthetic appeal of aquariums but also provide therapeutic benefits by relaxing the body and mind [2,3]. Furthermore, they play a significant role in promoting biodiversity in the ornamental aquaculture sector and reducing pressure on natural populations by serving as an alternative to wild-caught species. Economically, ornamental shrimp have become valuable commodities, offering income opportunities for small-scale breeders and aquaculture businesses worldwide. 

The identification of new ornamental shrimp species has been pivotal in advancing researchers' understanding of genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships. For example, Klotz and Von Rintelen (2014) described three new Caridina species—C. logemanni, C. mariae, and C. conghuensis—through morphological observations and mitochondrial DNA analysis [4]. These discoveries underscore the rich diversity of shrimp in regions such as Southern China and Hong Kong, where many species are integral to the international aquarium trade. 

From a research perspective, N. denticulata has emerged as a promising model organism for functional genomics due to its unique physiological and genetic traits [5]. Its transparent cuticle allows direct observation of reproductive stages and molting, while ongoing genomic and transcriptomic studies further solidify its potential as a model species. 

Traditional breeding methods for ornamental shrimp, often based on phenotypic selection for traits such as color or size, have facilitated the development of desirable characteristics. However, these methods are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and often produce inconsistent results. Moreover, maintaining genetic diversity while enhancing specific traits in captive populations remains a significant challenge. Molecular breeding offers innovative solutions to these limitations. Techniques such as transcriptome sequencing and Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) allow precise identification of genetic markers linked to desirable traits, enabling breeders to develop shrimp with vibrant coloration, improved disease resistance, and adaptability to diverse environmental conditions [6]. These advancements not only enhance breeding efficiency but also promote long-term sustainability in ornamental aquaculture. 

Natural organisms, including crustaceans, have evolved complex color and pattern adjustments to aid in mate selection, thermoregulation, defense mechanisms, and camouflage in their environments [7,8]. For ornamental shrimp, these coloration patterns are integral to their physiology, behavior, and marketability [9]. This review aims to summarize recent advancements in molecular breeding for freshwater ornamental shrimp, particularly N. denticulata, and to highlight the transformative potential of molecular tools in sustainable aquaculture. By integrating traditional and molecular breeding approaches, this review seeks to address current challenges, propose future research directions, and explore the practical applications of molecular breeding in commercial aquaculture, with implications for global food security and environmental conservation.

Molecular breeding technologies have revolutionized ornamental shrimp breeding by providing critical insights into the genetic basis of economically important traits, such as pigmentation, disease resistance, and growth. These advancements have enabled breeders to overcome the limitations of traditional breeding methods. The following sections summarize key developments in molecular breeding for ornamental shrimp, with a focus on Neocaridina denticulata.

Functional genomics and transcriptomics 

Functional genomics and transcriptomics have transformed our understanding of the molecular basis of shrimp traits by identifying key functional genes associated with pigmentation and other economic traits. For example, Huang et al. (2020) used transcriptome sequencing to identify genes involved in pigmentation pathways in Neocaridina denticulata [10]. Further studies, such as those by Huang et al. (2022), revealed body color-related genes through de novo transcriptome assembly, uncovering candidate genes involved in pigment biosynthesis and chromatophore development [11]. These findings have laid the groundwork for precise genetic interventions in breeding programs. 

Additionally, transcriptome-based analyses have provided insights into pigment migration, chromatophore maintenance, and pathways such as melanin, ommochrome, and pteridine biosynthesis [12]. Such research has emphasized the importance of gene expression techniques in validating candidate genes responsible for color variations across shrimp strains. These genes play key roles in developing vivid color morphs, which are essential for the ornamental shrimp market. Moreover, transcriptomic studies have facilitated the identification of regulatory networks and gene expression patterns, offering a more comprehensive understanding of shrimp physiology and molecular traits. 

Development of genetic markers 

The development of genetic markers, particularly Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers, has significantly advanced molecular breeding by enabling precise trait selection. For example, Huang et al. (2020) identified key functional SSR markers associated with pigmentation and chromatic adaptation using transcriptome sequencing [10]. These markers, including those related to flotillin-2 and keratin genes, have paved the way for Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) strategies, which enhance breeding efficiency by enabling early selection of traits such as color morphs and disease resistance.

MAS reduces the trial-and-error nature of traditional breeding methods and ensures consistency in shrimp strains, making it an indispensable tool in ornamental shrimp breeding. By integrating genetic markers into breeding programs, breeders can effectively accelerate the development of high-quality ornamental shrimp varieties [Figure 1]. 

 Figure 1: Workflow of molecular breeding techniques for ornamental shrimp.

Genome editing techniques 

The emergence of genome editing technologies, particularly CRISPR/Cas9, has opened new avenues for the genetic improvement of crustaceans. CRISPR/Cas9 enables precise mutations in genes associated with pigmentation, growth, and immunity. For instance, Li et al. (2022) demonstrated microinjection-based CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis in Neocaridina heteropoda, paving the way for targeted genetic modifications in ornamental shrimp [13]. 

This technology has immense potential to enhance pigmentation, improve disease resistance, and create novel shrimp morphs for the aquarium trade. However, challenges remain, including the efficient delivery of CRISPR reagents to shrimp cells and ethical concerns surrounding genetic modification in aquaculture. Further research is required to optimize genome editing techniques for commercial applications while addressing these challenges. 

Omics integration 

Integrating multiple omics approaches, including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and microbiome analysis, has provided a holistic understanding of complex traits in ornamental shrimp [10-12,14-17]. By analyzing data across multiple molecular levels, researchers can uncover the interplay between genetic, transcriptomic, and protein expression, which determines traits such as pigmentation and stress tolerance.

For example, combining transcriptomic and proteomic analyses has been critical for identifying biomarkers of disease resistance, while integrating metabolomic data has provided new insights into stress adaptation. These integrative approaches enhance the precision and efficiency of molecular breeding programs, creating new opportunities for shrimp improvement.

Genetic improvement has played a pivotal role in advancing ornamental shrimp breeding by addressing complex traits such as pigmentation, disease resistance, stress tolerance, reproductive efficiency, and growth performance. These advancements provide a foundation for sustainable aquaculture practices, ensuring higher efficiency and resilience in shrimp strains. 

Pigmentation and color morphs 

Pigmentation in ornamental shrimp, such as Neocaridina denticulata, is a complex trait regulated by both genetic and environmental factors. The coloration is primarily determined by chromatophores, specialized pigment-containing cells, and the pigments they store, including carotenoids and melanin. Genes involved in pigment biosynthesis pathways play a crucial role in producing vibrant color morphs, which are highly desirable in the ornamental shrimp market [18,19]. 

Transcriptome studies have identified key genes associated with chromatophore function and pigment deposition, providing insights into enhancing pigmentation through molecular breeding [10-12]. For example, genes related to pigment migration, chromatophore maintenance, and pathways like melanin, ommochrome, and pteridine biosynthesis have been identified. The integration of gene expression techniques has allowed the validation of candidate genes influencing color variations in different shrimp strains. These findings are critical for developing breeding strategies that produce vivid and stable color morphs, which are essential for market competitiveness [Figure 2].

Figure 2: Application of molecular marker loci in hybrid selection and genetic improvement of freshwater ornamental shrimp broodstocks.

Disease resistance and stress tolerance 

Enhancing disease resistance and stress tolerance is vital for the sustainability of ornamental shrimp aquaculture. Genomic and transcriptomic studies have identified immune-related genes, such as those encoding antimicrobial peptides and pattern recognition receptors, which play a key role in pathogen recognition and defense [20,21]. Functional markers linked to these genes have been utilized in Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) to improve disease resistance in Neocaridina denticulata. 

Stress tolerance, including resilience to hypoxia and temperature fluctuations, has also been a focus of genetic improvement. Recent research has identified stress-response genes, such as Catalase (CAT), Manganese Superoxide Dismutase (MnSOD), Hypoxia-Inducible Factor (HIF), Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs), and oxidative stress regulators, which can be targeted to enhance shrimp adaptability under varying environmental conditions [22-24]. Genetic strategies targeting these pathways reduce mortality and improve aquaculture yields. 

Reproductive traits and growth 

Reproductive efficiency and growth performance are critical traits for the commercial viability of ornamental shrimp aquaculture. Genetic studies have identified genes associated with gonadal development and fecundity, enabling targeted breeding strategies to increase reproductive output [25]. Enhanced reproductive efficiency ensures stable population growth, which is especially important for maintaining captive shrimp stocks. 

Growth-related genes, particularly those involved in nutrient metabolism and hormonal regulation, have been studied in edible shrimp species and are being applied to ornamental shrimp breeding [26,27]. Selective breeding for faster growth rates reduces the time required for shrimp to reach market size, enhancing profitability for breeders. Combining these traits through molecular breeding approaches optimizes aquaculture practices, improving both economic and biological sustainability.

Epibiotic interactions and their impact on shrimp health 

Epibiotic species have been shown to significantly influence the health and breeding success of ornamental shrimp. For instance, Maciaszek et al. (2023) documented the occurrence of epibionts such as Cladogonium kumaki sp. nov. and Monodiscus kumaki sp. nov. on Neocaridina davidi collected from various aquaculture environments [28]. Epibiont abundance was highest in shrimp from aquaculture ponds and lowest in aquarium-raised individuals. 

These epibionts may impact breeding rates and aquaculture productivity. Control measures, such as manual removal during molting and leveraging interspecies interactions, can mitigate their effects. By integrating these findings into molecular breeding programs, breeders can prioritize traits that enhance shrimp resilience to epibionts, improving breeding efficiency and sustainability [29].

Molecular breeding technologies have paved the way for significant advancements in sustainable aquaculture by improving the economic viability, environmental sustainability, and cross-species applicability of aquaculture practices. These applications not only enhance production efficiency but also address global challenges related to biodiversity conservation, food security, and resource management. 

Economic benefits 

Genetically improved ornamental shrimp strains, developed through molecular breeding techniques, offer enhanced traits such as vivid coloration, disease resistance, and environmental adaptability. These traits significantly boost their market value in the global aquarium trade, attracting premium prices from breeders and businesses alike. For example, molecular breeding facilitates the creation of high-end shrimp lines tailored to meet consumer demands, which, in turn, drives profitability and market competitiveness. 

Additionally, molecular breeding methods are cost-effective in the long term. By reducing the time required for selective breeding and minimizing losses due to disease and environmental stressors, these techniques improve production efficiency and sustainability. The initial investment in molecular tools is offset by sustainable benefits, such as increased yields and marketability, making molecular breeding an economically viable approach for ornamental shrimp aquaculture. 

Environmental sustainability 

Molecular breeding promotes environmental sustainability by reducing the reliance on wild-caught shrimp populations to meet aquarium trade demands. Overharvesting wild shrimp poses significant threats to biodiversity and aquatic ecosystems. By producing genetically improved shrimp strains in controlled environments, the pressure on natural populations is alleviated, contributing to habitat conservation and ecological balance [30].

Targeted breeding programs that prioritize genetic diversity further enhance sustainability by maintaining robust shrimp populations capable of adapting to environmental changes. These programs safeguard biodiversity and ensure the availability of high-quality, captive-bred shrimp for the ornamental industry, thereby reducing the ecological impact of aquaculture. 

Cross-species applications 

The genetic improvement techniques developed for ornamental shrimp have broad potential for application to other economically important aquaculture species, such as prawns (Penaeus monodon) and lobsters (Panulirus spp.). Technologies such as CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing and Marker-Sssisted Selection (MAS) can be used to enhance traits like disease resistance, growth performance, and environmental adaptability in these species.

Cross-species innovation drives progress in both ornamental and edible aquaculture sectors by leveraging advancements made in one domain and applying them to the other. For example, genetic improvement strategies developed for ornamental shrimp can be adapted for edible species, and vice versa. Such integrative approaches address challenges related to global food security, environmental conservation, and resource management, fostering sustainable and efficient aquaculture practices. 

Role of advanced bioinformatics 

Bioinformatics and Artificial Intelligence (AI)-driven data analysis have become essential tools for accelerating genetic discoveries and their practical applications in aquaculture. These technologies enable the efficient processing of large-scale genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic datasets, providing insights into complex traits such as pigmentation, disease resistance, and growth [31-33]. 

Machine learning and deep learning algorithms are particularly effective in identifying patterns in genetic data and predicting gene functions with high accuracy. For example, bioinformatics tools can annotate genes involved in pigmentation pathways or immune responses, streamlining the selection of target traits for breeding programs. Additionally, AI can model gene-environment interactions, enabling breeders to design strategies that enhance shrimp resilience to varying environmental conditions. 

The integration of bioinformatics with molecular breeding approaches improves the efficiency of MAS and genome editing by quickly and accurately identifying candidate genes. This reduces breeding time, lowers costs, and enhances the precision of genetic improvements. As bioinformatics and AI continue to evolve, their applications in aquaculture will further drive sustainable development and innovation in the industry.

Technical challenges 

The molecular breeding of ornamental shrimp faces significant technical challenges that hinder its widespread adoption. One major obstacle is the high cost and infrastructure requirements associated with advanced tools such as genome sequencing, transcriptome analysis, and CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. These technologies typically require sophisticated laboratory facilities and skilled personnel, making them inaccessible for small-scale breeders and aquaculture operations. 

Moreover, the limited availability of genomic resources for ornamental shrimp species poses another challenge. Compared to commercially important food species, ornamental shrimp lack comprehensive reference genomes, genetic markers, and functional studies. This scarcity of genomic information slows the progress of genetic improvement and innovation in ornamental shrimp aquaculture. 

Despite these challenges, molecular techniques such as Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) have proven critical for breeding programs. Unlike traditional selection methods, MAS allows precise genotype identification independent of growth stages or environmental factors, enabling early strain selection and improved breeding efficiency. Recent advancements, such as a cost-effective DNA extraction method from ornamental shrimp shells developed by researchers at National Taiwan Ocean University, provide promising solutions to enhance MAS-based breeding strategies (unpublished data). 

Ethical and regulatory considerations 

The use of genetic modification technologies in aquaculture, including ornamental shrimp breeding, raises ethical and regulatory concerns. Public apprehension surrounding CRISPR/Cas9 and other genome editing tools often centers on potential ecological impacts, such as unintended genetic changes or the escape of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) into wild populations. These concerns highlight the need for strict regulatory frameworks to ensure the safe and responsible application of molecular breeding technologies.

Consumer acceptance of genetically modified ornamental shrimp remains uncertain, particularly in markets where ethical considerations strongly influence purchasing behavior. Transparent communication of the benefits and safety of genetic modifications is essential to address these concerns and build public trust in the use of molecular tools in aquaculture. 

Future research priorities 

To overcome the challenges facing molecular breeding in ornamental shrimp aquaculture, future research must focus on addressing technical, ethical, and practical issues. Key priorities include:

1. Expanding Genomic Databases: Increasing the availability of reference genomes, transcriptomic data, and functional studies for ornamental shrimp species is essential. Comprehensive genomic databases will facilitate the identification of trait-associated genes and accelerate genetic improvement programs.
2. Developing Low-Cost, Accessible Molecular Tools: Affordable and user-friendly molecular breeding tools tailored for small-scale aquaculture operations are critical. Reducing reliance on expensive infrastructure will enable broader adoption of advanced breeding techniques, democratizing the benefits of molecular breeding.
3. Exploring Gene-Environment Interactions: Investigating how environmental factors such as water quality, temperature, and light interact with shrimp genetics will provide valuable insights. These findings can inform the design of breeding programs that enhance shrimp resilience to environmental changes while maintaining sustainability.

Molecular breeding has demonstrated transformative potential in ornamental shrimp aquaculture by enabling precise genetic improvement of key traits such as pigmentation, disease resistance, and environmental adaptability. These advancements not only enhance the economic value of ornamental shrimp but also contribute to sustainable aquaculture practices by reducing reliance on wild populations and promoting biodiversity. Achieving long-term sustainability in ornamental shrimp aquaculture requires the integration of advanced genetic techniques with traditional breeding methods. Combining the precision of molecular tools with the practical knowledge of selective breeding can produce robust and resilient shrimp strains. This integrated approach ensures aquaculture practices that are environmentally friendly, economically viable, and socially acceptable, paving the way for a more sustainable future. Overcoming challenges and realizing the full potential of molecular breeding will necessitate collaborative efforts. Researchers, industry stakeholders, and policymakers must work together to advance genetic technologies, establish regulatory frameworks, and create opportunities for widespread adoption. By fostering innovation and cooperation, the ornamental shrimp aquaculture industry can achieve sustainable growth and serve as a model for other aquaculture sectors. Such progress highlights the potential of genetic improvement in addressing global challenges related to food security, biodiversity conservation, and aquaculture resource management.

The corresponding author would like to express sincere gratitude to the funding agencies, collaborators, and industry partners who have significantly contributed to the advancement of molecular breeding research for ornamental shrimp. Their support has been instrumental in promoting innovation and development within this field. The author acknowledges the financial support from the following organizations: the National Science and Technology Council (formerly Ministry of Science and Technology) for funding the research project on constructing a high-density genetic linkage map and mapping colorful ornamental quantitative trait loci (QTLs) in Neocaridina denticulata using RAD-seq technology (MOST 110-2313-B-019-005); the Ministry of Agriculture (formerly Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan) Fisheries Agency for funding the development of mass production techniques for Amano shrimp (Caridina multidentata) and the identification of new freshwater ornamental shrimp strains (105AS-13.2.6-FA-F1); the Ministry of Agriculture (formerly Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan) Fisheries Agency for supporting the development of phenotypic traits-related gene markers for improved varieties in ornamental aquarium shrimp (105AS-4.4.2-FA-a1); and the Ministry of Agriculture (formerly Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan) Fisheries Agency for research on key technologies for freshwater aquarium shrimp breeding (104AS-16.2.6-FA-F1). The author would also like to extend heartfelt appreciation to the following collaborators and industry leaders for their invaluable contributions: Prof. Chyng-Hwa Liou; Prof. Yii-Shing Huang; the Aquarium Industry; General Manager Yeh-Hao Wang, Larmax International Co., Ltd.; Chairman Su Yao-Long, SKYFISH AQUA Co., Ltd.; Chairman Wang Jun-Yi (Dobby Wang), Five & Nine Top Aquarium; and Secretary General Hsu-Ming Chou, Taiwan Ornamental Fish Association. Their expertise, collaboration, and support have greatly advanced the molecular breeding of ornamental shrimp, contributing to sustainable aquaculture development and the creation of high-quality shrimp varieties for the aquarium trade.

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