Violence in the post-COVID-19 Era

Violence towards older adults is a problem that has existed throughout history, although its recognition as an important social issue is relatively recent (Fernández-Pedemonte, Casillo & Jorge-Artigau, 2020) . In some ancient cultures, elders were revered for their wisdom and experience. However, in others, they could be neglected or even euthanized when they could no longer contribute to the community. For example, the Spartans were known for their practice of abandoning weak newborns and the elderly on Mount Taygetus. During this period, care for the elderly depended heavily on family structures and religious communities. Monasteries and convents often provided care for the elderly. However, life was hard and resources were limited, sometimes resulting in neglect or mistreatment. 

The Industrial Revolution brought significant changes [1]. Mass migration to cities and the dissolution of extended families left many elderly people without family support. Asylums and hospices began to emerge in response to the growing need for institutionalized care, although conditions in these places were often deplorable. In many countries, social security programs and pensions began to be established, providing some financial stability to the elderly. However, abuse and neglect remained common, both in private homes and institutions. 

The recognition of violence towards older adults as a specific social problem began to gain attention [2]. In 1975, Dr. Suzanne Steinmetz coined the term "battered grandmother syndrome" in the United States, which helped make the problem visible. Violence against older adults has become an important issue on the human rights agenda. The United Nations and other international organizations have developed frameworks and guidelines to protect the elderly. In 2002, the UN General Assembly proclaimed June 15 as World Elder Abuse Awareness Day. Violence towards older adults remains a significant challenge, but ongoing efforts by governments, organizations and communities are working to ensure that older adults live with dignity, safety and respect. 

It is estimated that in the year 2050, Mexico will be the country with the highest proportion of older adults in all of Latin America, that is, 33.8 million people over 60 years of age [3]. In 2011 there was a percentage of 30.4, in 2012 it was 32.4 and in 2013 it was 33.9%. Only 9.9% of crimes are reported, of which 62.7% lead to the beginning of a preliminary investigation before the Public Ministry. Of the total crimes, a preliminary investigation is initiated in 6.2% of the cases. The above represents 93.8% of crimes where there is no complaint or no prior investigation is initiated. The main reasons for not reporting crimes to the corresponding authorities, on the part of the victims, stand out the loss of time with 31.4% and distrust in authority with 21%. In Mexico City, on average, 160 crimes are reported per day against this vulnerable sector of the population, according to figures from the General Directorate of Criminal Policy and Statistics of the Attorney General's Office of the Federal District. 

Aging theory can provide a valuable framework for understanding the causes and impact of violence toward older adults [4]. Various theories of aging offer different perspectives that help analyze and address this problem. Below are some of the most relevant theories and how they are applied to the analysis of violence against older adults: 

Disengagement Theory. Proposed by Elaine Cumming and William E. Henry in 1961, this theory suggests that as people age, they tend to gradually withdraw from their social roles and responsibilities [5]. This is seen as a natural and beneficial process for both the individual and society. Disengagement can lead to social isolation, which in turn can increase older adults' vulnerability to abuse. Lack of social connections and support can make it more difficult for elders to seek help or for others to detect and respond to abuse. 

Activity Theory. In contrast to disengagement theory, activity theory, developed by Robert Havighurst in the 1960s, maintains that satisfaction in old age is associated with the maintenance of social roles and activities [6]. Active participation in society can act as a protective factor against violence. Older adults who remain active and socially involved may have a stronger support network and be less likely to experience isolation and mistreatment.

Continuity Theory. Proposed by Robert Atchley, this theory suggests that people try to maintain continuity in their lives, adapting but maintaining patterns and activities similar to those they had in previous stages [7]. Continuity in relationships and activities can provide a constant support network and reduce the likelihood of violence. However, if continuity is interrupted by events such as the loss of a spouse or health problems, vulnerability to abuse may increase. 

Subculture Theory. This theory, proposed by Arnold Rose in 1962, maintains that older adults form a distinct subculture with their own norms and values, which may conflict with the dominant norms of younger society [8]. Cultural marginalization and intergenerational conflicts can contribute to violence against older adults. Lack of understanding and respect for the aging subculture can lead to abusive attitudes and behavior on the part of younger people. 

Theory of Social Interaction. This theory emphasizes the importance of social interactions and how the quality of these interactions can affect the well-being of older adults [9]. Low-quality or abusive social interactions can have a significant negative impact on the mental and physical health of the elderly. The theory suggests the need to improve the quality of social relationships and promote positive interactions to prevent abuse. 

Theory of Stress and Aging. This theory examines how chronic stress and aging-related stressors, such as loss of health, independence, and social status, can affect older adults [10]. Chronic stress can increase elders' susceptibility to abuse and neglect. Caregivers may also experience high levels of stress, which can lead to abusive behaviors. Interventions to reduce stress in both groups can be effective in preventing violence. 

Theory of Successful Aging. Proposed by John W. Rowe and Robert L. Kahn, this theory focuses on three key components of successful aging: low probability of disease and disability, high physical and cognitive functioning, and active participation in life [11]. Promoting successful aging by improving the health and well-being of older people can reduce vulnerability to violence. Policies and programs that support physical and mental health, as well as social participation, can be instrumental in preventing abuse. 

Each of these theories offers a unique perspective on aging and can help identify risk factors and prevention strategies for violence toward older adults. By combining insights from these theories, a comprehensive, multidimensional approach can be developed to address and prevent late-life abuse. 

However, the theories do not consider exceptional situations such as the pandemic and memory loss. Therefore, the objective of the present study is to contrast a conceptual theoretical model to establish the determinants of fear of crime in a sample of older adults with Alzheimer's who were victimized by delinquency and crime at some point in their lives. 

What are the indicators of fear of crime and criminality observable in a group of older adults diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease? 

From a psychosocial approach, anxiety related to crime and delinquency events is indicated by degrees of perceived incommensurability, unpredictability, and uncontrollability of the older adult with respect to victimization experiences [12-14]. From a sociopolitical approach, anxiety related to crime and delinquency is indicated by attitudes towards corruption, opacity and negligence, attributed to authorities with respect to crime prevention, combating crime and the delivery of law. justice.

Design. A cross-sectional and explanatory study was carried out.

Sample. A non-probabilistic selection of 208 older adults was carried out considering their diagnosis of Alzheimer's, in a stage indicated by the loss of procedural memory, although with the constant memory of a victimization event. Sex. 45% of the sample is male and 55% is female. Age . 34% are between 60 and 64 years old, 49% are between 65 years old and 70 years old, 17% are over 70 years old. Scholarship. 58% have a high school degree, 34% have a bachelor's degree, and 6% have a graduate degree. Income . 34% declared having a monthly income greater than 9,000 pesos (Mean = 500 USD with Standard Deviation = 24.37 USD), 56% an income between 6,000 and 900 pesos (M = 346 USD with SD = 24.1) and 10% an income of less than 6,000 pesos (M = 241 USD with SD = 12.14) Cluster . 49% declared that they live with their family (M = 269 USD with SD = 32.15 USD average monthly income), 26% indicated that they live with their partner (M = 378.89 USD with SD = 71.29 USD), 20% said they lived alone (M = 582.15 with SD = 39.49 USD) and 5% did not answer (M = 691.28 with SD 49.29 USD). 

Instrument. It includes a section of sociodemographic questions, a second section of items that measure the dimension of quality of life, another section on experiences of abuse, a section on mental health and questions derived from theories of aging (see Annex A). Adequacy and sphericity are prerequisites of the exploratory factor analysis of principal components with variamax rotation, their values indicate that there is a convergence of factors with respect to the construct of fear of crime and crime [X² = 12.35 (24gl) p = 0.000; KMO = 0.601]. The validity of the construct showed 6 factors related to incommensurability, unpredictability and uncontrollability; that when correlated between them they formed a construct alluding to the fear of crime and criminality, as experiences in which the respondents perceive themselves as victims. The three factors explained 63% of the total variance; Regarding 37% of the variance, this is explained by attitudinal factors towards corruption, negligence and opacity. That is, the construct of fear of crime and criminality is indicated by psychosocial rather than sociopolitical factors. The biased perception of victimization is hegemonic with respect to the attitude derived from government action in matters of security. Overall kurtosis = 2.26; Boostrap = 0.000; KMO = 0.601; X ² = 12.35 (24df) p = 0.000; Perception of incommensurability (22% of the explained variance), Perception of unpredictability (20% of the explained variance), Perception of uncontrollability (21% of the explained variance), Attitude toward corruption (15% of the explained variance), Attitude towards negligence (13% of the explained variance), Attitude towards opacity (9% of the explained variance). Regarding the reliability of the subscales, the values corresponding to the excluded item indicate that the instrument has sufficient consistency when measuring psychosocial and sociopolitical traits related to experiences of victimization in the face of crime and delinquency (general alpha = 0.817). Finally, the null hypothesis was accepted. This is because the adjustment parameters indicate that the model of hypothetical relationships fits the weighted model: [X2 = 14.12 (15df) p < 0.000; GFI = 0.975;CFI = 0.970; RMSEA = 0.001] 

Procedure: The literature corresponding to the period from 20 19 to 20 24 was reviewed, relating to the measurement and prediction of fear of crime. The model was specified considering the findings reported in the state of knowledge. The hypotheses were established based on the contrast between the psychosocial approach and the sociopolitical approach. The sample was contacted through the Alzheimer's Association. The selected sample was surveyed during their stay at the health center. The information was processed in SPSS and AMOS versions 21.0 

Analysis. The reliability of the scale was estimated from the Cronbach's alpha parameter, considering an item subscale correlation greater than 0.80, while the validity was established with a calculation of sphericity and adequacy with the statistics of Barttlet and Kayser, Meyer, Olkin, as well as an item-factor correlation greater than 0.600 considering a percentage of explained variance greater than 40%. Finally, the adjustment parameters and residuals were estimated in order to test the null hypothesis.

Confirmatory factor analysis establishes theoretical dimensions in empirical observations. The results demonstrate the prevalence of four factors with respect to a common one that the literature identifies as violence towards older adults. 

The correlation analysis indicates multicollinearity between the indicators. The values record associations close to zero that are considered evidence of reflective relationships between first-order factors with respect to indicators.

The present study has established the reliability and validity of an instrument that measures six different factors indicative of perceived victimization and attitude towards crime and criminality. 

The literature on violence towards older people covers several aspects, including domestic abuse, work-related violence, and abuse within residential settings [15]. Domestic violence lies in the abuse against children and the elderly, providing theoretical and analytical reasons. The incidence of violence towards staff caring for older people in residential settings highlights the importance of addressing violence directed towards older adults. Physical violence is related to elderly care institutions, emphasizing the prevalence, severity and reporting of such incidents. The importance of using home visits as a tool to detect elder abuse highlights the need for interventions with a bioethical perspective to improve the quality of life of older people. 

The social context of elder abuse determines the prevalence of abuse [16]. The different forms of abuse and the social contexts in which abuse occurs based on community attitudes towards older people, anxiety, depressive symptoms and exposure to violence in the general elderly population. The term "violence" better characterizes violent acts against older people, contributing to methodological and theoretical debates in the study of violence against older people. The correlation between alcohol use and family violence towards older people highlights the need to address alcohol use in older people to prevent elder abuse. Vulnerability is related to age and memory disorders, emphasizing the importance of understanding the factors that contribute to the vulnerability of older people. Aging as a hidden form of violence sheds light on the challenges faced by older people in society. 

García et al. found favorable attitudes towards State propaganda regarding civil security [17], as an individual responsibility and complementary to crime prevention, combating crime or the administration of justice. García [18], warns that distrust of the local police is encouraged by the media more than by experiences of victimization, but points out that in scenarios of vulnerability, marginality and exclusion; The influence of the media is reduced to its minimum expression while perceptions of control and effectiveness in terms of prevention intensify [19]. 

In the present work, unlike the state of the art where violence is emphasized as a result of the interaction between caregivers and older adults, four predominant factors were found related to quality of life, experiences of abuse, mental health and emotional, as well as direct observations of violence. That is, violence against older adults is a system that goes beyond their caregivers and extends to family members. 

Consequently, it is recommended to extend the study to the incidence of family members in order to reveal the system of violence that hangs over older adults, since the limits of the present study lie in the contrast of reference groups and membership with respect to older adults, as well as interaction scenarios.

The objective of this work was to confirm the factor structure of violence towards older adults. The results corroborate four dimensions related to quality of life, experiences of abuse, mental and emotional health, as well as direct observations of violence. In relation to the state of the art that suggests a margin of violence relative to those who care for older adults, the present work discovered that such violence can be observed in third parties and that this area of opportunity can be an advantage in the analysis of the context of violence. of older adults. It is recommended to extend the study to scenarios and situations of violence that arise from the interaction between people close to older adults.

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